هیدروپلیتیک آبخوان‌های فرامرزی: به‌سوی همکاری‌های کاربردی

نوع مقاله : مقاله پژوهشی

نویسندگان

1 دانشکده مهندسی عمران، پردیس فنی دانشگاه تهران، تهران، ایران

2 پژوهشگر پسادکتری-دانشگاه فردوسی مشهد

چکیده

کاهش پیوسته سطح آب زیرزمینی در بسیاری از مناطق دنیا مشکلات فراوانی را بوجود آورده است. در همین راستا، منابع آب‌های فرامرزی به خصوص آب‌خوان‌ها، منابع مهمی در مناطق خشک و نیمه‌خشک، محسوب می‌شوند. علیرغم بیش از یک دهه توجهات فنی و سیاسی در بالاترین سطوح بین‌المللی به آبخوان‌های فرامرزی، پیشرفت بسیار کمی در ایجاد و پیشبرد موافقت‌نامه‌ها در این حوزه حاصل شده است. دانش علمی مربوط به حدود 600 آبخوان فرامرزی بسیار ضعیف است تا جایی که شناسایی حوضه‌های در معرض چالش و مناقشه، تنها به یک حدس کارشناسی محدود می‌شوند. این مقاله، به مرور تعدادی از مهم‌ترین توافقات انجام شده در عرصه جهانی در قاره‌های اروپا، آفریقا و آمریکا پرداخته و تجربیات حاصل از هر کدام را بررسی می‌کند. در نهایت با توجه به نقاط قوت و ضعف موجود در فرآیند ایجاد و دوران حیات این موافقت‌نامه‌ها، چارچوبی برای تدوین موافقت‌نامه‌های کاربردی ارائه می‌شود که می‌تواند به‌خوبی در حل مسائل مربوط به آبخوان‌های فرامرزی استفاده شود.

کلیدواژه‌ها


عنوان مقاله [English]

Hydropolitics of Transboundary Aquifers: Towards Practical Cooperation

نویسندگان [English]

  • Bardia Roghani 1
  • Mohammad Fereshtehpour 2
  • Mohammad Ali Olyaie 1
1 School of Civil Engineering, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran.
2 Post doctoral researcher, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad.
چکیده [English]

Extended Abstract     
Interoduction
Groundwater resources are considered as the second largest source of freshwater in the world. The continuous decline of groundwater levels to meet the needs of agriculture, domestic and industry have caused numerous problems in different parts of the world in the second half of the last century. Accordingly, shared transboundary aquifers are taken into account as important water supply resources, especially in arid and semi-arid regions. To date, valuable experiences have been made on transboundary rivers in different levels, but despite more than a decade of technical and political attention at the highest international levels to transboundary aquifers, little progress has been made in developing and implementing agreements in this domain. The scientific knowledge of about 600 transboundary aquifers in almost every country is very weak, so that the identification of contaminated basins, the study of their pollution levels and the probability of their drying is limited to only expert's judgement.
Methodology
This article reviews a number of global agreements in the continents of Europe, Africa and America and examines the experiences of each of them using descriptive-analytical method. The information used in this research is based on official documents, books, magazines and domestic, foreign and internet publications. Finally, based on strengths and weaknesses of those agreements, a framework is presented for the development of cooperation and the formulation of practical agreements for Iran.
Discussion and Results
The results of the research show that there are number of factors for successful transboundary aquifers management such as making agreement explicitly refer to groundwater, harmonizing and sharing information with neighboring states and emphasizing on cooperative and local approaches. Moreover, the proposed framework consists of four general sections: in the first part, the initial agreement (including the provision of initial financial resources using the capacity of international institutions) would be made. In the second part, all important and influential institutions should operate in the form of the Water Diplomacy Committee. In the third part, it is necessary to provide a comprehensive assessment of the state of the transboundary aquifers by creating, coordinating and integrating various information databases. Finally, considering the different political structures of the watershed management in the countries of the aquifer, a comprehensive agreement, is made.
Conclusion
   Although competition over the use of shared water resources may have benefits in the short term to the upstream countries, but in the future, its negative effects affect all the countries in that shared basin. The failure of many governments of developing countries to apply restrictive policies on groundwater extraction, make these governments and even the global community feel anxious. Despite more than a decade of technical and political attention at the highest international levels to transboundary aquifers, little progress has been made in passing and implementing agreements on these resources.
In this paper, after reviewing the conceptual models of transboundary aquifers, some of the most important global experiences in Europe, Africa and the America were studied. The results showed that, except for the French-Swiss aquifer, other agreements were not able to achieve predetermined objectives for various reasons such as the lack of national approval of the agreement, lack of financial supports, etc. Accordingly, based on the lessons learned, a framework for practical cooperation between Iran and its neighbors was proposed. The present research has taken the initial steps towards achieving practical cooperation, and its further development will lead to more acceptable results.

کلیدواژه‌ها [English]

  • Transboundary Aquifer
  • Agreement
  • International Experiences
  • Practical Cooperation
  1. Ahmed, E. H. M. (2013). “Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System” Merit Research Journal of Environmental Science and Toxicology, v. 16, p. 114–118.
  2. Alley, W.M., (2013). “Five-Year Interim Report of the United States – Mexico transboundary Aquifer Assessment Program: 2007–2012”.
  3. Borghetti, N. R. B., Borghetti, J. R., & Rosa Filho, E. F. (2011). A integração das águas: revelando o verdadeiro aquífero Guarani. Curitiba: Edição da autora.
  4. Callegary, J.B., Heilman, J.A., Tapia Villasenor, E.M., Knight, J.E., (2018). San Pedro River Aquifer Data Release - Transboundary Aquifer Assessment Program (TAAP):U.S. Geological Survey Data Release. https://doi.org/10.5066/F72805RX
  5. Carter, N. T., Mulligan, S. P., & Seelke, C. R. (2017). US-Mexican Water Sharing: Background and Recent Developments. Congressional research service, Congressional Research Service 7-5700 www.crs.gov.
  6. Davies, J., Robins, N. S., Farr, J., Sorensen, J., Beetlestone, P., & Cobbing, J. E. (2013). “Identifying transboundary aquifers in need of international resource management in the Southern African Development Community region.” Hydrogeology Journal, 21(2), p. 321-330. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-012-0903-x
  7. de los Cobos, G. (2018). “The Genevese transboundary aquifer (Switzerland-France): The secret of 40 years of successful management.” Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies, 20, p. 116-127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2018.02.003
  8. de Oliveira Vieira, E., Sandoval-Solis, S., de Albuquerque Pedrosa, V., & Ortiz-Partida, J. P. (2019) Integrated Water Resource Management Cases from Africa, Asia, Australia, Latin America and USA. Springer Nature Switzerland AG.
  9. Development and Foresight Research Center (2018) “Investigating the effects of water planning programs of neighboring countries in shared basins on Iran”. 11th Ed., 97-13-1029.[In Persian]
  10. Eckstein, G.E., (2011). “Managing buried treasure across frontiers: the international Law of Transboundary Aquifers.” Water International 36, p. 573–583. https://doi.org/10.108002508060.2011.598642
  11. Eckstein, Y., Eckstein, G. E. (2005) "Transboundary Aquifers: Conceptual Models for Development of International Law." Ground Water, 3(5), p. 679-690. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.2005.00098.x
  12. Fereshtehpour, M., Roghani, B., Mianabadi, H (2015). “Transboundary groundwater governance challenges”.Geopolitics Quarterly, 11 (3), pp. 170-204.[In Persian]
  13. Hatami, M. & Babaei, H. (2015). “Analyzing 2008 International Draft Articles on the Law of Transboundary Aquifers” Public Law Research, 16(44), 9-33. http://qjpl.atu.ac.ir/article_666.html.
  14. IAEA, UNDP, GEF, (2013). Regional strategic action programme for the Nubian Aquifer System. Available at: https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/sap180913.pdf.
  15. IBWC, (2009). Joint Report of the Principal Engineers Regarding the Joint Cooperative Process United States-Mexico for the Transboundary Aquifer Assessment Program. pp. 11 August 19, 2009.
  16. IBWC/CILA, (2017). “Minutes between the U.S.  and Mexican section’s of the IBWC.” Project IBWC/CILA 2017. http://www.ibwc.state.gov/Treaties_Minutes/Minutes_ByProject.html Accessed February 10, 2017.
  17. IGRAC, (2015). Transboundary Aquifers of the World – The Special Edition for the 7 World Water Forum. Available at: https://www.un-igrac.org/ggis/transboundary-aquifers-world-map.
  18. Kettelhut, J. T. (2013). Lessons learned from The Guarani Aquifer System Project Adopted In The La Plata Basin Framework Program. Environmental Development, 7, p. 109-118.
  19. Margat, J., Gun, J. (2013). Groundwater Around the World: A Geographic Synopsis. Leiden: CRC Press/Balkema.
  20. McCaffrey, S. C. (2011). "The International Law Commission's flawed Draft Articles on the Law of Transboundary Aquifers: the way forward." Water International, 36(5), p. 566-572. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2011.597094
  21. Mokhtari Hashi, H. (2013) “Hydropolytic of Iran; Geography of the water crisis on the horizon of 1404, Geopolitics Quarterly, 9 (31), p. 49-83.[In Persian]
  22. Mokhtari Hashi, H., Ghaderi Hajat, M. (2008) “Middle East Hydropolytics on the horizon of 2025 Case Study: Tigris and Euphrates basins, the Jordan River and the Nile River, Geopolitics Quarterly, 4 (11), p. 36-74.[In Persian]
  23. Najafi, A., VatanFada, J. (2012). “Promoting transboundary water management, alternative ways in the Middle East case study: Iran and its neighbors’ transboundary waters”. Geopolitics Quarterly, 8 (28), 135-155. [In Persian]
  24. Newton, J. (2013). “Case Study of Transboundary Dispute Resolution: The Guarani Aquifer. Oregon State University Program in Water Conflict Management and Transformation.” http://www. transboundarywaters. orst. edu/research/case_ studies/GuaraniAquifer_New. htm. Accessed, Feb. 26, 2019.
  25. Nijsten, G. J., Christelis, G., Villholth, K. G., Braune, E., & Gaye, C. B. (2018). “Transboundary aquifers of Africa: Review of the current state of knowledge and progress towards sustainable development and management.” Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies, 20, p. 21-34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2018.03.004
  26. Puri, S., & Aureli, A. (2005). “Transboundary aquifers: a global program to assess, evaluate, and develop policy.” Groundwater, 43(5), p. 661-668. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.2005.00100.x
  27. Puri, S., Appelgren, B., Arnold, G., Aureli, A., Burchi, S., Burke, J., ... & Pallas, P. (2001). “Internationally shared (transboundary) aquifer resources management: their significance and sustainable management” IHP-VI, Series on Groundwater No 1 p. 66 (Paris: UNESCO) Available at: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001243/124386e.pdf.
  28. Quadri, E. (2017). “The Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System–A case of cooperation in the making.” In World Water Congress XVI, International Water Resources Association (IWRA). Cancun, Mexico.
  29. Rivera, A., & Candela, L. (2018). “Fifteen-year experiences of the internationally shared aquifer resources management initiative (ISARM) of UNESCO at the global scale.” Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies, 20, p. 5-14.
  30. Sanchez, R., & Eckstein, G. (2017). Aquifers shared between Mexico and the United States: Management perspectives and their transboundary nature. Groundwater, 55(4), 495-505. https://doi.org/10.1111/gwat.12533
  31. Shahbazbegian, M., Bagheri, A., Mousavi Shafaei, S. M., (2016). “Analysis of the mechanisms leading to Hirmand River water harvesting in Afghanistan, with emphasis on the state-building project in that country”. Geopolitics Quarterly, 12 (43), p. 168-190.[In Persian]
  32. Sindico, F., Hirata, R., & Manganelli, A. (2018). “The Guarani Aquifer System: From a Beacon of hope to a question mark in the governance of transboundary aquifers.” Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies, 20, p. 49-59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2018.04.008
  33. Villar, P. C. (2016). “International cooperation on transboundary aquifers in South America and the Guarani Aquifer case.” Revista Brasileira de Política Internacional, 59(1).
  34. Villar, P. C. and Ribeiro W. C. )2011(. “The Agreement on the Guarani Aquifer: a new paradigm for transboundary groundwater management?” Water International, 36 (5), p. 646-660. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060 .2011.603671
  35. Wada, Y., & Heinrich, L. (2013). "Assessment of transboundary aquifers of the world—vulnerability arising from human water use". Environmental Research Letters, 8(2).
  36. World Bank (2009). “Environmental Protection and Sustainable Development of the Guarani Aquifer System Project.” Project ID: P068121. Available at: http://projects.worldbank.org/P068121/environmental-protection-sustainable-development-guarani-aquifer-system-project